Human Trafficking And Slavery A Violation Of The...

Global Overview Human Trafficking and Slavery universally happens in the world when individuals are placed or maintained in and exploitive situation for economic gain. Women, men and children are trafficked for a range of different purposes; forced and exploitative labour in factories, farms and private households, sexual exploitation, and forced marriage. Trafficking can happen to all people if the circumstances are right. Human trafficking and slavery is in direct violation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Article 4 which states â€Å"No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms†. Human trafficking and Slavery in its sole purpose and intention is violating human rights, by forcing people to become slaves because they have no other option. In countries like Uganda and Guinea – Bissau, children as young as five have been trafficked to the LRA (Lord’s Resistance Army) as either soldiers or as sexual slaves, while others have been sent to work in cotton fields in Southern Senegal. Human trafficking and slavery is also a violation against the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 3, which says â€Å"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.† Human trafficking and Slavery is in violation of numerous international documents which are aimed at preventing it from happeni ng and protecting the rights that are presented to people some of these documents are; Convention againstShow MoreRelatedWomen s Traditional Cultural Values Of Gender Roles1333 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract Human trafficking is a heinous crime and a horribly profitable business which affects hundreds of millions of people every year worldwide. In Nepal, women and girls are more often trafficked than men, either within the country or to brothels in India. They make easy prey because of the poor economic status of many Nepalese citizens and the fact that most women and girls in Nepal do not have education and are completely illiterate. Traffickers are able to abduct them from their lives andRead MoreHuman Trafficking Is An Illegal Movement Of People986 Words   |  4 PagesINTRODUCTION: Human Trafficking is an illegal movement of people for the purpose of forced labour or sexual exploitation. Millions of people from around the globe have been captured and caught to undergo activities against their will mainly for the act of slavery or pleasure and prostitution.Human Trafficking is a criminal industry stripping people of life and freedom. To this day, human trafficking is happening around the globe and numbers of victims are increasing up until this generation. NeverthelessRead MoreHuman Trafficking- The Escalating Global Violation of Human Rights1355 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Trafficking- The Escalating Global Violation of Human Rights Human Trafficking is a serious Global matter that violates a multitude of the Human Rights articles outline in The Universal Declarations of Human Rights. Thousands of individuals are subjects of Human Trafficking every year; the perpetrators of this crime do not discriminate, targeting men, women, the young and the old all over the world. Human Trafficking is indeed a Global issue, occurring in nearly every country on the planetRead MoreThe Violation Of Human Rights1284 Words   |  6 Pages784478 Title: The Violation of Human Rights Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction 3 2. Relevance and value of human rights 3 3. Case studies 4 3.1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights 4 3.2 African Charter 5 3.3 Bill of Human Rights 7 4. Conclusion 7 5. Bibliography 8 1. Introduction Basic human rights are being violated every day all over the world. This includes each human being’s fundamental rights, which are rights that come with beingRead MoreHow Much Would You Sell For?1131 Words   |  5 Pagesand Crime (UNODC), Trafficking in Persons is defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. The most common forms of human exploitation are sexualRead MoreInternational Law Threatens Western Countries1262 Words   |  6 PagesTherefore, in this essay, how do violations of international laws present a direct threat to Western countries will be discussed in the first part, then the understanding of such th reats and justice perpetrators of international crime will be examined in relation to comparative criminology in the second and the third part with illustration of various international data. Firstly, violations of international law generally refer to violation of human rights. Human rights are a complex area in internationalRead MoreFence Of Human Trafficking811 Words   |  4 Pagesoffence of human trafficking encompasses multiple countries and by extension, multiple jurisdictions. To simplify, the issue can be trichotomised to ‘source countries’, ‘transit countries’ and ‘destination countries’. Australia, alongside with the rest of the developed world, is widely considered a destination country. A destination country, as inferred from the title, is one where those trafficked are most commonly sent to. Throughout the world, it is estimated the number of victims of human traffickingRead MoreEssay about Case-Documentary: Child Slavery in the Chocolate Factories730 Words   |  3 PagesThe issue of child slavery within the chocolate industry is a complex issue to solve for corporations within this market sector. Child slavery is heavily embedded into the working culture in cocoa farming, and as a manager, it is important to recognise the problem and do all possible to abolish such activity. As a manager overseeing these issues, it is key to be a leader and enact objectives to inspire other corporations to stand against child slavery in the chocolate industry. Since corporationsRead MoreHuman Trafficking Has Been Existent For Thousands Of Years983 Words   |  4 PagesIn 1863, the United States enacted laws that formally abolished slavery. However, modern day manifestation of slavery still exists; it is called â€Å"human trafficking.† Human trafficking, according to the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 is â€Å"trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age; or the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person forRead MoreHuman Trafficking And 19th Century American Slavery2818 Words   |  12 Pages Many people believe that slavery was abolished in the 17th century; however, this is only partly correct. Slavery is technically illegal in the United States, but on the black market, humans are still constantly trafficked. Specifically, a lot of men, women and children are trafficked from another country and brought to America to be a slave. This comparison will focus on the similarities of today’s human trafficking and 17th century American Slavery, specifically relating to sexual exploitation

Hero’s Journey Free Essays

Each person undergoes a unique journey in their life. However, each person goes through the same basic steps; Choosing different paths to make each journey unlike anyone else’s. The Hero’s Journey is a journey that everyone will take during their life. We will write a custom essay sample on Hero’s Journey or any similar topic only for you Order Now We should acquaint ourselves with the type of journey we are on in order to successfully complete our journey. I had traveled down the wrong path and had gone from using marijuana occasionally to being physically addicted to methamphetamines. I knew it was wrong but I couldn’t stop myself. I needed something to motivate me to change my ways and become a better person. To begin, the hero’s journey is initiated when the hero is removed from their comfort zone. This irresolute feeling is agonizing, confusing, and manifests a Call to Adventure. A call is in demand when the hero has room to grow and develop: when he must change. My personal Call to Adventure was when I overdosed and nearly died, landing me in the hospital for weeks. The hero must answer this calling in order to satisfy this need to grow, face the unknown, and to gain something of magnitude. I knew now was the time to change my ways and get my life back on track. While I was lying unconscious on the hospital bed, I can clearly remember somebody telling me that I would die if I didn’t change my ways. I never figured out if it was God or a person talking to me but it definitely hit home with me. This was where I made the decision to get clean and change my life. This was the jumping-off point; it was now or never. After I decided that, I knew there was no going back. After I was released from the hospital, with the help of my doctor, I convinced my parents to send me away to inpatient rehab. That is where I encountered my first trials and challenges. My first trial and challenge was going through the withdrawls from the drugs. I was sick, nauseous, and delusional for about a week until it all got out of my system. That was probably the hardest part. I kept imagining was being in a fire and then directly into an ice bath because of the raging fever I had. After that subsided I could start to work on my issues and start to deal with my addiction. My next trial and challenge came when I was released and went to hang out with my old friends. At first, I had no idea what to do when I saw my old friends using drugs so I just stopped going out. I had no social life for a time so I decided to try to get back with my old friends and not use. This is what led up to my final battle/climax. The final battle/climax of my personal hero’s journey was when I went to a party with my friends and had promised myself that I wouldn’t use drugs. Unexpectedly, somebody had brought some and everyone was joining in on it. I had to choose between using the drugs and getting my life back on the downward spiral that It was on a couple months ago, and between walking away from the situation and keeping my life on track. Even though everyone was pressuring me to do it, I stayed strong and didn’t; I left and went home instead. I had chosen to keep my life on the path I was on, the path to success and sobriety. My atonement phase was almost as hard as the rest of it. I had to confront the issues that I had suppressed with drugs during a crucial development period in my life, emotionally. I had always coped with my emotions by using drugs but that was no longer an option so I started going to the gym to let off stress. There has been nothing negative about getting my life back on track. My home life with my family is much better. I am much happier overall. My return phase consisted of successfully going back to school with the kids I used to use drugs with and be able to function without giving in to the peer pressure. It was here that I became the master of two worlds. I was still friends with all the kids that I used to do drugs with but I was sober and had sober friends at the same time. These two worlds were vastly different but I am still able to balance my time between them so nobody feels like I am no longer friends with them. I am confident that I can handle the peer pressure of kids at school and outside of school now and that is crucial to my journey to adulthood. How to cite Hero’s Journey, Essay examples

Things Happy People Do Differently free essay sample

I’d always believed that a life of quality, enjoyment, and wisdom were my human birthright and would be automatically bestowed upon me as time passed. I never suspected that I would have to learn how to live that there were specific disciplines and ways of seeing the world I had to master before I could awaken to a simple, happy, uncomplicated life. † -Dan Millman (author of The Way of the Peaceful Warrior) Happiness and science. Did you know that the two are in a relationship? Something amazing has been happening in the last 10 years. It’s called the positive psychology movement. The world’s leading psychologists are saying that instead of using psychology to simply treat mental illness, let’s use it to make normal life more fulfilling. That’s where you and I come in: The applied science of happiness! I used to think that happiness was some far off elusive destination to be reached only when the sun, moon, and Martha Stewart’s sleeping patterns were in sync. Finding out the things that are proven to make us happy, and then doing them and feeling the results for myself, is one of the most valuable things I’ve ever discovered. Let’s start things off by learning how happiness works 2 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: 0 How Happiness Works In the 20th century, from 1900-2000, for every 100 articles published on the negative side of psychology (illnesses like bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, depression, etc†¦) there was approximately ONE article published on the positive side (things like gratitude, exercise, optimism, etc ). Here’s where happiness comes from. Research done involving identical twins separated at birth shows that about 50% of our happiness is determined by our genetics. We’re pretty much born with a â€Å"happiness set-point† and regardless of what external circumstances are going on, in the long run, if unchecked, we’ll return to that level of happiness. Now this is where most people (including myself at one point) take a wrong turn: They spend most of their time chasing the *things* that they’ve been brainwashed to believe will bring them happiness. However, science shows that the *things* you have in life only bring about 10% of your happiness. Stuff like what kinda’ car you drive, how much money you have in the bank, and what your job title is all fit into this category. For the most part, you can think of this 10% as â€Å"external incentives. † The warm fuzzy feeling that those things initially bring will diminish kinda like the experience of eating cookie-dough ice-cream. The first taste is a euphoric explosion of enzymes tangoing with your taste buds. But by the time you’re on spoon six – it’s nothing new. So that leaves us with a big fat chunk of 40% left to address. These are our behavioral tendencies which we have direct control over. And *this* my friend, this is where we have the power to make change†¦ RIGHT NOW! WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 3 1 Express Gratitude When you appreciate what you have, what you have appreciates in value. Kinda’ cool right? So basically being grateful for the goodness that is already evident in your live will bring you a deeper sense of happiness. And that’s without having to go out and buy anything. It makes sense. We’re going to have a hard time ever being happy if we aren’t thankful for what we already have. â€Å"Self-actualizing people have the wonderful capacity to appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the basic goods of life, with awe, pleasure, wonder and even ecstasy, however stale these experiences may have become to others. Abraham Maslow (founder of humanistic psychology) An easy way to implement this happiness habit is by keeping a gratitude log. When you wake up in the morning, jot down a couple of things that you’re grateful for that day. It could be anything from your freedom, to your health, to your family, to the food you eat. Another amazingly power ful thing to do is spontaneously call someone and thank them for something that they did for you. Although it may have been a recent act of kindness, it could potentially also have happened 10 years ago at your cousin Lisa’s wedding. Your call – it’s a powerful one! | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: 2 Cultivate Optimism Winners have the ability to manufacture their own optimism. No matter what the situation, the successful diva is the chick who will always find a way to put an optimistic spin on it. She knows â€Å"failure† only as an opportunity to grow and learn a new lesson from life. People who think optimistically see the world as a place packed with endless opportunities, *especially* in trying times. â€Å"Between the optimist and the pessimist, the difference is droll. The optimist sees the doughnut; the pessimist the hole! Oscar Wilde (19th century Irish poet) We know that the thoughts we think repeatedly are the ones that create our reality. So when you train your mind to expect the best, you get the best results in return. One way you can implement this habit today is by starting a â€Å"best-selves diary. † Spend a couple of minutes each day visualizing what your life would look like in a year, or 5 years, or 20 years, if everything from now until then went perfectly. Then write down what your day would look like, how you would fe el, what you would have accomplished, etc I personally love to cultivate optimism by spending a couple of minutes each night while I’m lying down in bed visualizing what my *ideal* day will be tomorrow. I imagine waking up and having a powerful meditation, followed by a creative journaling session, and then spewing out a series of rock-star writings. I also think about all the interactions I’ll have that day and visualize what the best possible outcome is. I picture myself bringing love, playfulness, insight, and growth to every interaction I have. I like to spend 2 minutes doing the same when I wake up in the morning before I open my eyes. WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 5 3 Avoid Over-Thinking Social Comparison Comparing yourself to someone else can be poisonous. If we’re â€Å"better† than the person that we’re comparing ourselves to, it gives us an unhealthy sense of superiority. Our ego inflates – kaboom! Our inner Kanye West comes out! If we’re â€Å"worse† than the person that we’re comparing ourselves to, we usually discredit the hard work that we’ve done and all the progress that we’ve made. What I’ve found is that the majority of time, this type of social comparison doesn’t stem from a healthy place. If you feel called to compare yourself to something, compare yourself to an older version of yourself. â€Å"Envy is ignorance. Imitation is suicide. † – Ralph Waldo Emerson (19th century American philosopher) I’ve made this mistake a lot in my life – I’d see some successful person and do everything I could to become them. But while learning about *how* they’ve become successful is super powerful, trying to *be* them is kryptonite. I’ll never be able to be a sexy Brad Pitt than Brad Pitt, but I can learn what he did to make himself so attractive. It makes a lot more sense (and life a lot easier) to strive to be a first class version of yourself rather than a second class version of someone else. If you catch yourself compulsively comparing and thinking about these kinds of things, break the habit. I’ve found out the hard way that over-thinking while your mind is in a negative state is TOXIC! The best thing you can do is stop thinking – completely! Go for a walk, sing a song, work-out, get a massage, take a power-nap, watch a funny movie – anything to get your mind to shut up! 6 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: Practice Acts of Kindness Performing an act of kindness will release serotonin in your brain. (Serotonin is a substance that has TREMENDOUS health benefits, including making us feel more blissful. ) Selflessly helping someone is a super powerful way to feel good inside. â€Å"Kindness in words creates confidence. Kindness in thinking creates profoundness. Kindness in givin g creates love. † Lao Tzu (mystic philosopher of ancient China) I love this one! Both big and small acts of kindness are equally amazing. You can imagine how good it feels to come through for someone and save their day. By the same token, I love doing little things for people like opening the door to the bank and letting them in first. Another fun one is making eye contact with a complete stranger and instead of holding an intense stare, I’ll break into a really big smile! It totally takes them by surprise. Complements in elevators are nice gestures too and a good way to kill the awkward â€Å"iPhone/Blackberry moment. † WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 7 5 Nurture Social Relationships The happiest people on the planet are the ones who have deep meaningful relationships. Did you know studies show that people’s mortality rates are DOUBLED when they’re lonely? WHOA! There’s a warm fuzzy feeling that comes from having an active circle of good friends who we can share our experiences with. We feel connected and a part of something more meaningful than our â€Å"lonesome† existence. â€Å"Stay with friends who support you in these. Talk with them about sacred texts, and how you are doing, and how they are doing, and keep your practices together. † – Rumi (13th century Persian poet) Ah yes, what good is all the success in the world if we don’t have anyone to share it with?! One way that you can nurture social relationships is by taking a sincere interest in what people are going through in their lives. Schedule some time to talk with them about what they’re up to and share some things that are meaningful to you as well. A cup of tea during the day, meeting up for lunch, going out with them on nights or weekends all of that is great stuff. Another thing you can do is when you’re dealing with people at work, instead of rushing into whatever the reason for the interaction is, genuinely ask the person you’re working with something about themselves. Sometimes you’ll be shocked as to what you can find out about someone†¦ â€Å"You toured with Kiss for 6 years in the 70s?! What!?! † 8 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: 6 Develop Strategies for Coping How you respond to the â€Å"craptastic† moments is what shapes your character. Sometimes shit happens – it’s inevitable. Forest Gump knows the dealio. It can be hard to come up with creative solutions in the moment when the manure is making its way up toward the fan. It helps to have healthy strategies for coping pre-rehearsed, on-call, and in your arsenal at your disposal. â€Å"Opposition is a natural part of life. Just as we develop our physical muscles through overcoming opposition such as lifting weights we develop our character muscles by overcoming challenges and adversity. – Stephen Covey (author of The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People) When stuff starts to heat up, one of the first things I do is exchange a big belly breath with the universe. That may be the single most effective thing you can do to cope with any situation. BREATHE! It’s also great to become conscious of your physiolo gy straighten your back and ground your feel flat on the floor. So much out of our mental energy is directly dictated by our physical being. Take a couple more of those deep breaths. Another thing that can help tremendously is to take the other person’s perspective and ompassionately imagine what it feels like to be them. That’s a HUGE one. Also, If you have a favorite song, or YouTube video, or person to talk to – use it! Embrace the positive emotion that comes from these things to get your mind off of what’s going on. Has something been reoccurring that really pisses you off every time it happens? Think about the best way to respond to it before it happens again. WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 9 7 Learn To Forgive Harboring feelings of hatred is horrible for your wellbeing. You see, your mind doesn’t know the difference between past and present emotion. When you hate someone, and you’re continuously thinking about it, those negative emotions are eating away at your immune system. You put yourself in a state of suckerism (technical term) and it stays with you throughout your day. â€Å"When you hold resentment toward another, you are bound to that person or condition by an emotional link that is stronger than steel. Forgiveness is the only way to dissolve that link and get free. † Catherine Ponder (American minister and inspiration author) In order to creative our ideal futures, we need to be able to forgive our pasts. If we stay in the past, our minds will grow old and bitter. We’ve gotta’ focus on what we want from life and not what we don’t, because ultimately, what we continuously focus on is what we’ll get. It helps to keep in mind that when you forgive someone, you are really doing *yourself* the favor, not them. 10 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: 8 Increase Flow Experiences Flow is a state in which it feels like time stands still. It’s when you’re so focused on what you’re doing that you become one with the task. Action and awareness are merged. You’re not hungry, sleepy, or emotional. You’re completely engaged in the activity that you’re doing. Nothing is distracting you and competing for your focus. â€Å"Enjoyment appears at the boundary between boredom and anxiety, when the challenges are just balanced with the person’s capacity to act. † – Tal Ben-Shahar (professor of positive psychology at Harvard University) Flow comes from an equal balance between the difficulty of what you’re doing, and how skilled you are at doing it. If you’re over-skilled, the task will be boring. If you’re under-skilled, you’ll become anxious and stressed. But when you find the delicate balance between the challenge and your ability, you’ll enter a state of flow. WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 11 9 Savore Life’s Joys True happiness cannot exist without slowing down to enjoy the joy. It is easy in a world of wild stimuli and omnipresent movement to forget to embrace life’s enjoyable experiences. When that happens, we rob the moment of its magic. It’s the simple things in life that can be the most rewarding if we remember to fully experience them. â€Å"He who distinguishes the true savor of his food can never be a glutton; he who does not cannot be otherwise. Henry David Thoreau (19th century American philosopher) A great way place to start savoring life’s joy is with food. When you sit down to eat, you can start by reminding yourself how fortunate you are for having the food in front of you. Yes, bless it, thank it, and then eat it. When you take a bite, put the fork down and focus of chewing and tasting the flavor of the food. See if you can take 40 chews before you swallow. Wait until you’ve completely swallowed the food in your mouth before you put another piece of it onto your fork and into your mouth. Of course, there’s an infinite amount of things that you can choose to savor. The trees, the bees, the grass, some ass†¦ Chilling with friends†¦ Coming home to a warm home†¦ Being able to look up information in a split second (that up until recently could have taken weeks to find†¦) you pick! 12 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Help your friends: 10 Commit To Your Goals Being wholeheartedly dedicated to doing something comes fully-equipped with an ineffable force. Magical things start happening when we commit ourselves to doing WHATEVER IT TAKES to get somewhere. When you’re fully committed to doing something, you have no choice but to do that thing. Counter-intuitively, having no option – where you can’t change your mind – subconsciously makes humans happier because they know part of their purpose. â€Å"Until one is committed, there is hesitancy, the chance to draw back, always ineffectiveness. Concerning all acts of initiative (and creation), there is one elementary truth, the ignorance of which kills countless ideas and splendid plans: that the moment one definitely commits oneself, then providence moves too. † – William Murray (19th century Scottish writer) I love, love, love this one. There’s something so ridiculously extraordinary about being committed to doing something. You can feel the difference is saying â€Å"I’m going to *try* to live a life I love† and â€Å"I’m fully committed to living a life I love. † I write my biggest commitment (aka my purpose) down every morning after I wake up. One piece of wisdom that I’ll offer you here is this: When you get all excited about committing to something, focus on being consistent with it and not intense about it. Resist the urge to blast off face first into a new project, task, or goal. You’ll probably be super stoked to get your groove going, and in turn, you may burn out pretty quickly. Commit to things for the long term. I’m not committed to living an extraordinary month – I’m committed to living an extraordinary life! WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 13 11 14 | 12 THINGS HAPPY PEOPLE DO DIFFERENTLY Practice Religion Spirituality When we practice religion and spirituality, we get in touch with the fact that life is bigger than us. We surrender the silly idea that we are the mightiest thing ever. It enables us to connect to the source of all creation and embrace a connectedness with everything that exists. The spiritual force transcends all. I feel this great creative and spiritual force within me that is greater than faith, greater than ambition, greater than confidence, greater than determination, greater than vision. It is all these combined. † – Bruce Lee (20th century Chinese martial arts philosopher) Some of the most accomplishe d people feel that they are here doing the work they are â€Å"called to do. † Some take it a step future and feel as if they aren’t doing work at all, but are *being used* as an instrument for a higher power to operate. Whether or not you believe in â€Å"god† as popular culture and ancient scripture depicts her, this is an enormously powerful paradigm to have. Meditation is one of the most powerful ways in which you can step your spirituality game up today. Sitting quietly for a couple of minutes and focusing on your breathing has been shown scientifically to have TREMENDOUS benefits on your mind, body, and soul. I committed to meditating every day about a year ago and haven’t missed a day since. I can’t speak highly enough about the transformation it has helped bring me through your turn! Help your friends: 12 Take Care of Your Body Taking care of your body is crucial to being the happiest person you can be. If you don’t have your physical energy in good shape, then your mental energy (focus), your emotional energy (feelings), and your spiritual energy (purpose) will all be negatively affected. â€Å"Lack of activity destroys the good condition of every human being, while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it. † – Plato (classic Greek philosopher) Did you know that studies conducted on people who were clinically depressed showed that consistent exercise raises happiness level just as much as Zoloft (karate chop to all you pill poppers throats! Not only that, but here’s the double whammy†¦ Six months later, the people who participated in exercise were less likely to relapse because they had a higher sense of accomplishment since they made the change in their life themselves. Profound findings indeed. One easy thing you can start doing is taking 30 minut e walks. You can wake up earlier and take them then. You can get out during your lunch break. And you can even do them in the evening. If you committed to spending just 1% of your time to exercising, you’d be in great shape. In actuality, exercising 1% of your time equals about 5 separate 20 minute workouts throughout the week. WWW. SENSOPHY. COM | 15 🙂 Feeling The Wisdom Sensophy comes from two words: Sense + Sophy. That means Feeling + Wisdom. Here’s why that’s important: Just knowing the above won’t do a damn thing for you. You’ve gotta’ create non-negotiable rituals in your life around this knowledge in order to feel the effects of it. Positive rituals are as essential to daily life as eating, showering, and breathing. Happiness is a skill†¦ a practice†¦. a muscle†¦ The more time you spend consciously working it out, the more jacked up you’ll be about life. If you start slacking and skipping sessions at the happiness gym, you’ll shortly after shrink in size. The above research is based on topics tackled by Sonja Lyubomirsky in her book called The How of Happiness. Here’s something really cool that Sonja says: â€Å"Pick your *favorite* happiness habit from the list and just focus on that *single* one. Not the one that you think you should do, but instead, the one that you want to do! † So pick one. Just one. Any one. And commit to consciously and deliberately practicing it for the next few months of your life. Happiness, like mastery, is about the journey. Sure there are ups and downs but those pass, and in the long run, you’re only gonna’ be as happy as you’re committed to being. One of the most effective ways to consistently live from a place of happiness is to live life â€Å"on purpose. † Finding and living your purpose brings the type of happiness that emanates from your core no matter how somber a situation can seem. In 4 days from now, I’m gonna’ send you 7 ways to tell if you’re not currently living your highest purpose, and 7 tricks for fixing that. In the mean time, if you enjoyed this report, please share it. On Purpose, Jacob.

The Connection Between Language and Race Essays - Culture

The Connection Between Language and Race Language exists as much to conceal as to signify. Whatever admirable relations such terminology signifies, the use of such language can be a way of embedding racist attitudes. Race' was first used in the English language in 1508, in a poem by William Dunbar, and through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries it remained essentially a literary word denoting a class of persons or things. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the term came to mean a distinct category of human beings with physical characteristics transmitted by descent. Race has been used to distinguish who is who and language has been used to communicate with each other verbally and by writing. The importance of language is a key aspect and interaction in our everyday lives. We use language to communicate to the people around us about how we feel and question/understands this world that we are in. We communicate great with our words, emotions, and timbre of our voice in an abundance of situation. Would you talk to a small child with the same words you would in a business meeting? The ability to socialize with each other, form relationships, collaboration, and it's what separates humans from other animal species. Communication drives our lives and better ourselves. I have always been interested in languages. Our language is the most important part of our being. I think it is important to learn other languages because it help us learn about other people and their culture, it's so simple that we can learn just from socializing this is one of the most basic parts of our identity. Language isn't the only way that humans communicate but it makes it so much easier to do s o with language. No matter where you go in the world, there was always be different languages everywhere. For example if you come to Los Angeles, it is a lot of people from different places coexisting in the same region. Languages can be gray in many ways what they also can make it difficult for people to communicate as well. If you speak English but someone else speak Spanish it may be difficult to understand what the other person is saying, making the conversation more difficult than if you both spoke the same language. Although it may be difficult for us to all speak the same language, we can definitely learn how to speak others language through tutoring and other resources. Especially if you like traveling around the world it is a good idea to know more than one language. Thus language is not the creation of one person or of one period but it is an collection, on which hundreds of generations and numerous individual workers have worked. Language is like a update to mankind. It raised Man from a low state of being to a articulate frame of mind. Additionally, man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals have some level of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but, is completely different and complex. Also, language helps with the spread of culture. Sometimes an idea or situation is not able to be explained with language, this makes it hard to translate. Language is so important to humankind I really can't imagine life without it. It can easy to forget how useful our words can be and the history that comes with it. Race refers to a person physical person such as hair, eyes and color. It also represents the concept of dividing people into groups based on physical characteristic (which is a result from your genetic ancestry). People may wonder does race play a role in our society today I would say yes! Throughout history we have witnessed the effects and even today there are still race issues going on in our society. Racism ties together with race so, people may may wonder does this still exist, I would say yes based on the way society is structured it highly suggest that it definitely exist. For example, higher prestige jobs tend to be based on race and background more so than the skills you're

Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Essay Example

Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Essay Example Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Essay Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Essay Naresh Paneru Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Implementation of Lean Manufacturing Tools in Garment Manufacturing Process Focusing Sewing Section of Men’s Shirt Naresh Paneru Master’s thesis Autumn 2011 Degree Programme in Industrial Management Oulu University of Applied Sciences Author: Title of Thesis: Naresh Paneru Implementation of lean manufacturing tools in garment manufacturing process focusing sewing section of Men’s Shirt Thesis Supervisor: Degree: Graduation Year: Number of Pages: Hannu Paatalo Degree Programme in Industrial Management Autumn, 2011 72 + 8 ABSTRACT Traditionally operated garment industries are facing problems like low productivity, longer production lead time, high rework and rejection, poor line balancing, low flexibility of style changeover etc. These problems were addressed in this study by the implementation of lean tools like cellular manufacturing, single piece flow, work standardization, just in time production etc. After implementation of lean tools, results observed were highly encouraging. Some of the key benefits entail production cycle time decreased by 8%, number of operators required to produce equal amount of garment is decreased by 14%, rework level reduced by 80%, production lead time comes down to one hour from two days, work in progress inventory stays at a maximum of 100 pieces from around 500 to 1500 pieces. Apart from these tangible benefits operator multi-skilling as well as the flexibility of style changeover has been improved. This study is conducted in the stitching section of a shirt manufacturing company. Study includes time studies, the conversion of traditional batch production into single piece flow and long assembly line into small work cells. Key Words: Lean manufacturing, Just In Time, Cellular manufacturing, Time study, Single Piece Flow 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the Oulu University of Applied Science for giving me the opportunity to pursue Master’s Degree in Industrial Management. I would like to thank my supervisor, Hannu Paatalo for his continued support throughout the course of this thesis. Similarly, I would like to express my genuine appreciation for senior lecturer Mr. Tauno Jokinen who guided me throughout this thesis process. I am obliged to all seniors and juniors in the industry, who coordinated and helped me directly or indirectly during the research process. 5 CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION.. 12 1. 1 Background 12 1. Research Problems 13 1. 3 Research Objective 14 1. 4 Research Approach 15 1. 5 Report Construction.. 16 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2. 1 History of Lean 17 2. 2 Definition of Lean . 18 2. 3 Lean Principles 18 2. 4 Toyota Production System 19 2. Kind of Wastes 21 2. 6 Lean Manufacturing Tools and Techniques . 22 2. 6. 1 Cellular Manufacturing .. 22 2. 6. 2 Continuous Improvement.. 24 2. 6. 3 Just in Time .. 5 2. 6. 4 Total Productive Maintenance 28 2. 6. 6 Waste Reduction Techniques .. 31 2. 6. 7 Value Stream mapping 32 2. 7 Method Study .. 33 2. 8 Labor Standards and Work Measurements 33 2. 8. 1 Historical Experience .. 34 2. 8. 2 Time Studies 34 2. 8. 3 Predetermined Time Standards .. 36 2. 8. 4 Work Sampling .. 36 6 2. 9 Layout Design . 8 2. 10 Assembly Line Balancing 39 2. 10. 1 Takt Time 40 2. 10. 2 Cycle Time . 41 2. 11 Summary.. 1 3 GARMENT MANUFACTURIGN PROCESS 43 3. 1 Industry Background 43 3. 2 Garment Manufacturing Process 44 3. 2. 1 Cutting Section 44 3. 2. 2 Preparatory Section .. 44 3. 2. Assembly Section.. 47 3. 2. 4 Finishing Section .. 48 3. 3 Style Communication .. 49 3. 4 Existing Production Layout .. 49 3. 5 WIP Movement System .. 1 4 RESEARCH OF THE EXISTING PRODUCTION . 52 4. 1 Conducting Time Study .. 52 4. 2 Creating Cellular Layout 53 4. 3 Work Balancing between Operators . 54 4. 4 Critical Operation Handling . 56 4. Trial Production on New Layout 58 5 RESULT ANALYSES . 59 5. 1 Throughput Time Comparison 59 5. 2 Comparison of Production Time 60 5. 3 Comparison of Number of Operation .. 61 5. Comparing Number of Operator Required 62 5. 5 Compa rison of Information Flow .. 64 7 5. 6 Comparison of Rework Level . 64 5. 7 Operator Skill Improvement .. .. 65 5. 8 Operator Motivation . 5 6 RESEARCH SUMMARY . 66 6. 1 Conclusion . 66 6. 2 Limitations of the Study . 67 6. 3 Recommendation for Future Research 68 7 LIST OF REFERENCES 0 8 LISTS OF APPENDICES .. 73 8 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Difference between Push and Pull Manufacturing System†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 27 Table 2: Section wise Number of Operation and Number of Operator requirement †¦.. 57 9 LIST OF FIGURES Figure1: Toyota Production System†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦20 Figure 2: Pillars of TPM†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦29 Figure 3: Garment Production Process Flow Chart†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 43 Figure 4: Cutting Section Production Flow Chart†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦ 5 Figure 5: Preparatory Section Production Flow Chart†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 46 Figure 6: Assembly Section Production Flow Chart†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦47 Figure 7: Finishing Section Production Flow Chart†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 48 Figure 8: Existing Production Layout of Stitching Section†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 50 Figure 9: Recommended Stitching Section Layout†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 55 Figure 10: Comparison of Production Time for Different Stitching Sections†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 61 Figure 11: Comparison of Number of Operation in Different Sections†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 62 Figure 12: Comparison of Number of Operator Required in Different Sections†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 63 0 ABBREVIATIONS CAD CAM CI FSVSM ISVSM JIT MTM PDCA PFD PMTS PSVSM SAM SMED TMU TPM TPS VSM WIP Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Manufacturing Continuous Improvement Future State Value Stream Mapping Ideal State Value Stream Mapping Just in Time Methods Time Measurement Plan Do Check Act Personal Fatigue and Delay Predetermined Motion Time Systems Present State Value Stream Mapping Standard Allowed Minutes Single Minute Exchange of Dies Time Measurement Unit Total Productive Maintenance Toyota Production System Value Stream Mapping Work in Progress 11 1 INTRODUCTION 1. Background Due to the increasing labor wage in developed countries, the apparel manufacturing has been migrating from the high wage developed world to low wage developing countries (Bheda, Narag an d Singla, 2003). Even though the labor cost is cheaper than in developed countries; due to the specific market nature of the garment industries for example: the short production life cycle, high volatility, low predictability, high level of impulse purchase, the quick market response; garment industries are facing the greatest challenges these days (Lucy Daly and Towers, 2004). Garment industries in developing countries are more focused on sourcing of raw material and minimizing delivery cost than labor productivity because of the availability of cheap labor. Due to this, labor productivity is lower in developing countries than in the developed ones. For example, labour is very cheap in Bangladesh but the productivity is poor among other developing countries (Shahidul and Syed Shazali, 2011). Similarly, the cost of fabric is a major part of the garment so there seems to be great need for improvement in this sector. Even in developing countries the CAD and CAM system for fabric cutting has been implemented to save fabric. Now the worry is about labor productivity and making production flexible; because the fashion industry is highly volatile and if the orders are not fulfilled on time, the fear for losing business is real. Even today, industries are getting the same or more volumes (orders), but the number of styles they have to handle has increased drastically. Earlier industries were getting bulk order so there is no need to worry; if the production line was set for the first time it would run for a month or at least a week or two. But nowadays due to small order quantities and complex designs, the garment industry has to produce multiple styles 12 even within a day; this needs higher flexibility in volume and style change over (Shahram and Cristian, 2011). In some cases it has been observed that, in developing countries the garment industries are run as family business lacking skilled personnel as well as capital to implement new technologies for improving productivity and flexibility. Because of this, industries have been running in a traditional way for years and are rigid to change. They are happy as long as they are sustaining their business. They don’t have much confidence and will towards innovation over old processes. Now the time has come to struggle with global market demand and niche market in garment industries if they want to run it further (Gao, Norton, Zhang and Kin-man To, 2009). This volatility of styles can be addressed only by flexibility in manufacturing. The best way to cope with all these challenges is the implementation of lean manufacturing. This will serve our purpose of flexibility and save a lot of money by reducing production lead time, reducing the inventory, increasing productivity, training operators for multiple works, and by reducing rework. 1. 2 Research Problems The major problem people faced in garment industry is stitching; most of time failure to meet delivery time is because of stitching. Stitching operations (with respect to cutting and finishing) needs high skill as well as quality work, because of difficulty associated with repairing of products sewed with wrong specifications. Thus we have to give more attention to stitching than to cutting and finishing of garments. Firstly, High WIP in traditional type of batch production is the major problem faced by industries. Due to high WIP the throughput time as well as rework is very high. In some cases, even though the operator has completed the stitching operations the garment cannot be packed because of high WIP. Due to huge WIP, the defective parts are hidden inside the batches and it is very difficult to clear them while completing the final order quantity. This is the reason why garment professionals seem to work like fire fighters; 13 because they are always in a hurry for searching the missing garment pieces all over the shop floor. Secondly, in batch processing flexibility cannot be achieved easily; which is the current demand of garment industry. This is obstructed by the decreasing order size and increasing number of styles. So to meet this requirement production layout should be designed such that it should hold minimum WIP and should be flexible enough to the changing of order. Thirdly, in batch process operators are given specific jobs, so the operator knows one or a few more operations only. Though he (she) may have good skill and can work more efficiently on one (allocated job only) operation; he (she) cannot work immediately on some other operation. This is another need of today’s world, because the fashion is changing frequently and the work force should be capable enough to cope with this change. To achieve this operator should be multi-skilled; which can be served by regular training and converting long assembly lines into small manufacturing cells. Workload fluctuation among operators is another problem in batch processing, because one operator is given one operation at a time. So the operator who is performing easier and low time consuming jobs can pile up a huge amount of WIP whereas in the critical operations (operations which need more time and skill) there is lagging causing unbalanced WIP in-between machines and the work load is not proper among operators. This research tries to address all these problems of garment industry by implementing lean manufacturing in the case company. . 3 Research Objective Lean manufacturing is an operational strategy oriented towards achieving the shortest possible cycle time by eliminating wastes. The term lean manufacturing is coined to represent half the human effort in the company, half the manufacturing space, half the investment in tools and half the engineering hours to develop a new product in half the time. These benefits can be achieved only if the concept is religiously followed i n the 14 organization. In simple terms lean manufacturing is without waste. Thus the objective of this research is to find out how we can use lean manufacturing to achieve the following: To meet customer demand on time by eliminating non value added work from the process To minimize the work in process inventory To create flexibility of style changeover To reduce rework percentage To create a pool of multi-skilled operators who can respond quickly for changing style 1. 4 Research Approach The initial step in this research is to systematically study and define the history of the lean manufacturing concept and its different tools and techniques. It will then examine some most used lean manufacturing tools and techniques. This will be followed by the study of the existing production system of the case company for example the existing production layouts, inventory movement systems, work balancing methods and other different variables which needs to be improved for the betterment of the existing system. To address the current issues of the industry, the researcher tries to find out the standard operation time for each operation by using time study techniques and will try to standardize all the operations. Once the standard operation time is obtained work will be done to find out the best suitable production layout and WIP movement methods, which will help to get flexibility in style changeover, should reduce the production lead time, create operator multi-skilling etc. After doing these entire things as paper work, the researcher will implement the research outcomes in the company and the improvement will be measured against the existing process. Basically, this is quantitative research where the researcher is a part of the organization during the study. 15 1. 5 Report Construction The whole report consists of seven chapters. The first chapter describes the need of the research, research objectives and research approach. Literature review about lean manufacturing, layout designs, time study and assembly line balancing is described in chapter two. Industry background and garment manufacturing processes are described in the third chapter followed by the research methodology, data collection methods etc. in chapter four. The fifth chapter includes the analysis part of the research; in this chapter different parameters are compared between existing production systems and he new recommended system. Chapter six is about the research summary, conclusion of research, its limitations and recommendation for further study, followed by the list of reference in the seventh chapter. 16 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 History of Lean During II world war, the economic condition of Japan was heavily destroyed. Due to this there was scarcity of fund resulting in limiting access to corp orate finance. In this situation, neither Toyota was able to set up a mass production system like their American counterparts, nor it was possible to layoff the employees to reduce their cost due to legislation. Anyhow Toyota had to devise a new system for reducing costs to sustain in the market. So they decided to produce a small batch of products which would reduce inventories; it means they would need less capital to produce the same product. But this is obstructed by the practical difficulty of changing tools and production lines frequently. To cope with this problem they started making multipurpose tooling systems in their machines and trained their employees in changeover time reduction methods. At the same time, Toyota realized that investing in people is more important than investing in bigger size machinery and continues employee training throughout the organization. This motivates all employees and they are more open to the improvement process and everyone started giving their input to the company. In this way, short production runs started by Toyota became a benefit rather than a burden, as it was able to respond much more rapidly to changes in demand by quickly switching production from one model to another (Drew, Blair and Stefan, 2004, p. -6). Toyota didn’t depend on the economies of scale production like American companies. It rather developed a culture, organization and operating system that relentlessly pursued the elimination of waste, variability and inflexibility. To achieve this, it focused its operating system on responding to demand and nothing else. This in turn means it has to be flexible; when there are changes in demand, the operating system is a stable workforce that is required to be much more skilled and much more flexible than those in most mass production systems. Over time, all these elements were consolidated into a new approach to operations that formed the basis of lean or Toyota Production System. 17 2. 2 Definition of Lean The popular definition of Lean Manufacturing and the Toyota Production System usually consists of the following (Wilson, 2009, p. 29-30). 1. It is a comprehensive set of techniques which when combined allows you to reduce and eliminate the wastes. This will make the company leaner, more flexible and more responsive by reducing waste. 2. Lean is the systematic approach to identifying and eliminating waste through continuous improvement by flowing the product or service at the pull of your customer in pursuit of perfection (Nash, Poling and Ward, 2006, p. 17). According to (Drew et al. , 2004, p 25) the lean operating system consists of the following: A lean operating system follows certain principles to deliver value to the customer while minimizing all forms of loss. Each value stream within the operating system must be optimized individually from end to end. Lean tools and techniques are applied selectively to eliminate the three sources of loss: waste, variability and inflexibility. Thus the organization who wants to implement lean should have strong customer focus, should be willing to remove wastes from the processes they operate on daily basis and should have the motivation of growth and survival. 2. 3 Lean Principles The major five principles of Lean are as follows (Burton T. and Boeder, 2003, p. 122): Principle 1: Accurately specify value from customer perspective for both products and services. 18 Principle 2: Identify the value stream for products and services and remove non-valueadding waste along the value stream. Principle 3: Make the product and services flow without interruption across the value stream. Principle 4: Authorize production of products and services based on the pull by the customer. Principle 5: Strive for perfection by constantly removing layers of waste. 2. 4 Toyota Production System It is a manufacturing system developed by Toyota in Japan after World War II, which aims to increase production efficiency by the elimination of waste. The Toyota production system was invented and made to work, by Taiichi Ohno. While analyzing the problems inside the manufacturing environment; Ohno came to conclude that different kinds of wastes (non value added works) are the main cause of inefficiency and low productivity. Ohno identified waste in a number of forms, including overproduction, waiting time, transportation problems, inefficient processing, inventory, and defective products. Figure 1 shows the Toyota Production System in detail. From this figure it can be seen that TPS is not only a set of different tools but it is the philosophy and integration of different tools and systems to achieve a common goal of waste reduction and efficiency improvement. Each element of this house is critical, but more important is the way the elements reinforce each other. Just In Time (JIT) means removing the inventory used to buffer operations against problems that may arise in production. The ideal of one-piece flow is to make one unit at a time at the rate of customer demand or Takt time. Using smaller buffers (removing the â€Å"safety net†) means that problems like quality defects become immediately visible. This reinforces Jidoka, which halts the production process. This means workers must resolve the problems immediately and urgently to resume production. 9 FIGURE 1: Toyota Production System1 Stability is at the foundation of the house. While working with little inventory and stopping production when there is a problem causes instability and a sense of urgency among workers. In mass production, when a machine goes down, there is no sense of urgency because the maintenance department is scheduled to fix it while the inventory keeps the operations running. By contrast, in lean production, when an operator shuts down equipment to fix a problem, other operations will also stop immediately due to no inventory creating a crisis. So there is always a sense of urgency for everyone in production to fix problems together to get the machine in working condition and to run the production as soon as possible. 1 Toyota Way (Liker, 2003, p. 33) 20 If the same problem occurs repeatedly, management will quickly conclude that this is a critical situation and it should be cracked without any delay. People are at the center of the house, because it is only through continuous improvement that the operation can ever attain this needed stability. People must be trained to see waste and solve problems at the root cause by repeatedly asking why the problem really occurs. Problem solving should be on the actual site of the problem where everything is visible and practical also; this technique of problem solving is called Genchi Genbutsu. In general TPS is not a toolkit. It is not just a set of lean tools like just-in-time, cells, 5S (sort, stabilize, shine, standardize, sustain), Kanban, etc. It is a sophisticated system of production in which all parts contribute to a whole. On the whole, its focus is on supporting and encouraging people to continually improve the processes they work on. 2. 5 Kind of Wastes According to David Magee, (Magee, 2007, p. 67) different kinds of wastes in a process can be categorized in following categories. These wastes reduce production efficiency, quality of work as well as increase production lead time. 1. Overproduction – Producing items more than required at given point of time i. e. producing items without actual orders creating the excess of inventories which needs excess staffs, storage area as well as transportation etc. 2. Waiting – Workers waiting for raw material, the machine or information etc. s known as waiting and is the waste of productive time. The waiting can occur in various ways for example; due to unmatched worker/machine performance, machine breakdowns, lack of work knowledge, stock outs etc. 3. Unnecessary Transport – Carrying of work in process (WIP) a long distance, insufficient transport, moving material from one place to another place is known as the unnecessary transport. 4. Over processing – Working on a product more than the actual requirements is termed as over processing. The over processing may be due to improper tools or 21 improper procedures etc. The over processing is the waste of time and machines which does not add any value to the final product. 5. Excess Raw Material This includes excess raw material, WIP, or finished goods causing longer lead times, obsolescence, damaged goods, transportation and storage costs, and delay. Also, the extra inventory hides problems such as production imbalances, late deliveries from suppliers, defects, equipment downtime, and long setup times. 6. Unnecessary Movement – Any wasted motion that the workers have to perform during their work is termed as unnecessary movement. For example movement during searching for tools, shifting WIP etc. 7. Defects – Defects in the processed parts is termed as waste. Repairing defective parts or producing defective parts or replacing the parts due to poor quality etc. is the waste of time and effort. 8. Unused Employee Creativity – Loosing of getting better ideas, improvement, skills and learning opportunities by avoiding the presence of employee is termed as unused employee creativity (Liker, 2003, p. 29). 2. 6 Lean Manufacturing Tools and Techniques There are numbers of lean manufacturing tools which, when used in proper ways will give the best results. Once the source of the waste is identified it is easier to use the suitable lean tool to reduce or eliminate them and try to make waste free systems. Some of these tools are discussed in this chapter. 2. 6. 1 Cellular Manufacturing A cell is a combination of people, equipment and workstations organized in the order of process to flow, to manufacture all or part of a production unit (Wilson, 2009, p. 214215). Following are the characteristics of effective cellular manufacturing practice. . Should have one-piece or very small lot of flow. 22 2. The equipment should be right-sized and very specific for the cell operations. 3. Is usually arranged in a C or U shape so the incoming raw materials and outgoing finished goods are easily monitored. 4. Should have cross-trained people within the cell for flexibility of operation. 5. Generally, the cell is arranged in C or U shape and covers less space than the long assembly lines. There are lots of benefits of cellular manufacturing over long assembly lines. Some of them are as follows (Heizer and Render, 2000, p. 345-346). 1. Reduced work in process inventory because the work cell is set up to provide a balanced flow from machine to machine. 2. Reduced direct labor cost because of improved communication between employees, better material flow, and improved scheduling. 3. High employee participation is achieved due to added responsibility of product quality monitored by themselves rather than separate quality persons. 4. Increased use of equipment and machinery, because of better scheduling and faster material flow. 5. Allows the company higher degrees of flexibility to accommodate changes in customer demand. 6. Promotes continuous improvement as problems are exposed to surface due to low WIP and better communication. 7. Reduces throughput time and increases velocity for customer orders from order receipt through production and shipment. 8. Enhances the employee’s productive capability through multi-skilled multimachine operators. Apart from these tangible benefits, there is the very important advantage of cellular manufacturing over the linear flow model. Due to the closed loop arrangement of machines, the operators inside the cell are familiar with each other’s operations and they understand each other better. This improves the relation between the operators and helps to improve productivity. Whereas in long assembly line one operator knows only two 23 operators (before and after his operation in the line) it seems that operators are working independently in the line. 2. 6. 2 Continuous Improvement According to (Gersten and Riss, 2002, p. 41) Continuous improvement (CI) can be defined as the planned, organized and systematic process of ongoing, incremental and company-wide change of existing practices aimed at improving company performance. Activities and behaviors that facilitate and enable the development of CI include problem-solving, plan-do-check-act (PDCA) and other CI tools, policy deployment, cross-functional teams, a formal CI planning and management group, and formal systems for evaluating CI activities. Successful CI implementation involves not only the training and development of employees in the use of tools and processes, but also the establishment of a learning environment conducive to future continuous learning. The short description of PDCA cycle is given below Plan: Identify an opportunity and plan for change. Do: Implement the change on a small scale. Check: Use data to analyze the results of the change and determine whether it made a difference. Act: If the change was successful, implement it on a wider scale and continuously assess the results. If the change did not work, begin the cycle again. Thus continuous improvement is an ongoing and never ending process; it measures only the achievements gained from the application of one process over the existing. So while selecting the continuous improvement plan one should concentrate on the area which needs more attention and which adds more value to our products. There are seven different kinds of continuous improvement tools (Larson, 2003, p. 46) they can be described as follows. The use of these tools varies from case to case depending on the requirement of the process to be monitored. 24 Pareto Diagram: The Pareto diagram is a graphical overview of the process problems, in ranking order from the most frequent, down to the least frequent, in descending order from left to right. Thus, the Pareto diagram illustrates the frequency of fault types. Using a Pareto, one can decide which fault is the most serious or most frequent offender. Fishbone Diagram: A framework used to identify potential root causes leading to poor quality. Check Sheet: A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. This is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes. Histogram: A graph of variable data providing a pictorial view of the distribution of data around a desired target value. Stratification: A method of sorting data to identify whether defects are the result of a special cause, such as an individual employee or specific machine. Scatter Diagram: A graph used to display the effect of changes in one input variable on the output of an operation. Charting: A graph that tracks the performance of an operation over time, usually used to monitor the effectiveness of improvement programs. 2. 6. 3 Just in Time Just in time is an integrated set of activities designed to achieve high volume production using the minimal inventories of raw materials, work in process and finished goods. Just in time is also based on the logic that nothing will be produced until it is needed (Shivanand, 2006, p. 45). Just-in-time manufacturing is a Japanese management philosophy applied in manufacturing. It involves having the right items with the right quality and quantity in the right place at the right time. The ability to manage inventory (which often accounts 25 for as much as 80 percent of product cost) to coincide with market demand or changing product specifications can substantially boost profits and improve a manufacturer’s competitive position by reducing inventories and waste. In general, Just in Time (JIT) helps to optimize company resources like capital, equipment, and labor. The goal of JIT is the total elimination of waste in the manufacturing process. Although JIT system is applied mostly to manufacturing environment, the concepts are not limited to this area of business only. The philosophy of JIT is a continuous improvement that puts emphasis on prevention rather than correction, and demands a companywide focus on quality. The requirement of JIT is that equipment, resources and labor are made available only in the amount required and at the time required to do the work. It is based on producing only the necessary units in the necessary quantities at the necessary time by bringing production rates exactly in line with market demand. In short, JIT means making what the market wants, when it wants, by using a minimum of facilities, equipment, materials, and human resources (Roy, 2005, p. 170). JIT principles are based on the following (Shivanand, 2006, p. 4): It is commonly used to describe the stockless production manufacturing approach, where only the right parts are completed at the right time. It is not a destination but a journey. Reducing inventory, improving quality and controlling cost. A â€Å"Pull System† where the parts are produced only when they are required. Pull and Push System In push system, when work is finished at a workstation, the output is pushed to the next station; or, in the case of the final operation, it is pushed on to the final inventory. In this system, work is pushed on as it is completed, with no regard for whether the next station is ready for the work or not. In this way, the WIP is unbalanced in all operations throughout the shop floor (Roy, 2005, p. 174). 26 TABLE 1: Difference between push and pull manufacturing system Description Signal to produce more Timing of signal Planning horizon Leveling of demand Push System Schedule or plan Advance of the need Fairly long No Too much inventory, no Pull System Customer signal At the time of the need Very short Generally yes Does not planned ahead, missed customer demand at the beginning of product life cycle, too much inventory at the last Repetitive, high volume manufacturing and stable demand Visible Much Negatives about the system visual control, long and planned lead times, requires more information Non repetitive, batch, short Best for product lifecycle, long lead time purchasing Problem visibility Stress to improve Not visible Little The push system is also known as the Materials Requirements Planning (MRP) system. This system is based on the planning department setting up a long-term production schedule, which is then dissected to give a detailed schedule for making or buying parts. This detailed schedule then pushes the production people to make a part and push it forward to the next station. The major weakness of this system is that it relies on guessing the future customer demand to develop the schedule that production is based on and guessing the time it takes to produce each part. Overestimation and underestimation may lead to excess inventory or part shortages, respectively (Shivanand, 2006, p. 50). Whereas in pull system; each work station pulls the output from the preceding station as it is needed. Output from the final operation is pulled by customer demand or the master 27 schedule. Thus in pull system work is moved in response to demand from the next stage in the process. The Kanban system is used to monitor the effective pull process. Table 1 helps to differentiate Pull and Push system. 2. 6. 4 Total Productive Maintenance Machine breakdown is one of the major headaches for people related to production. The reliability of the equipment on the shop floor is very important because if any one of the machines is down the entire shop floor productivity may be nil. The tool that takes care of these sudden breakdowns and awakes maintenance as well as production workers to minimize these unplanned breakdowns is called total productive maintenance. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a maintenance program, which involves a newly defined concept for maintaining plants and equipment. The goal of the TPM program is to increase production, increase employee morale and job satisfaction. (Bisen and Srivastava, 2009, p. 175) TPM is set of tools, which when implemented in an organization as a whole gives the best utilization of machines with least disruption of production. The set of tools are called pillars of TPM and they are shortly described here and illustrated in a TPM diagram (Figure 2). 5S The first pillar of TPM is called 5S, which organize and cleans work place; this helps to make problems visible and attracts the attentions of everyone. Brief description of 5S elements are as follows: Sort: The first step in making things cleaned up and organized. Set In Order: Organize, identify and arrange everything in a work area. Shine: Regular cleaning and maintenance. Standardize: Make it easy to maintain, simplify and standardize. Sustain: Maintain what has been achieved. 28 FIGURE 2: TPM diagram Pillars of TPM (Kumar, 2008, p. 217) Autonomous maintenance This is about the involvement of production workers in the day to day general maintenance of machines like cleaning, lubricating etc. hich saves the time of skilled maintenance person at the same time the production workers are made more responsible to their machines. Kaizen Kaizen is for small improvements, but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people in the organization. Kaizen requires no or little investment. The principle behind is that â€Å"a very large number of small improvements are more effective in an organizational environment than a few improv ements of large value. † This pillar is aimed at reducing losses in the workplace that affect our efficiencies (Kumar, 2008, p. 220). Planned maintenance It addresses the proactive approach of maintenance activities. This involves four types of maintenance namely preventive maintenance, breakdown maintenance, corrective maintenance, and maintenance prevention. 29 Quality Maintenance It is aimed towards customer delight through the highest quality and defect free manufacturing. In this system, one has to take care of parts which affect product quality and try to eliminate or modify them to give customer superior quality. Training Employees should be trained such that they can analyze the root cause of the problem. General know how of the problem is not sufficient rather they should be able to know why the problem is occurring and how to eliminate it. For this employee need continuous training, ultimately; the entire employee should be multi-skilled and should solve the problem in their area by themselves. Office TPM This tool is about increasing the efficiencies in office (administrative) activities. This tool works the problems like communication issues, data retrieval processes, management information systems, office equipment losses, up to date information about inventories etc. Safety Health and Environment In this area, the focus is to create a safe workplace and a surrounding area that would not be damaged by our process or procedures. This pillar will play an active role in each of the other pillars on a regular basis. Safe work environment means accident free, fire less and it should not damage the health of workers. 2. 6. 5 Work Standardization A very important principle of waste reduction is the standardization of work. Standardized work basically ensures that each job is organized and carried out in the same manner; irrespective of the people working on it. In this way if the work is standardized the same quality output will be received even if the worker is changed in process. At Toyota, every worker follows the same processing steps all the time. This 30 includes the time needed to finish a job, the order of steps to follow for each job, and the parts on hand. By doing this one ensures that line balancing is achieved, unwanted work in process inventory is minimized and non value added activities are reduced. A tool that is used to standardize work is called takt time. 2. 6. 6 Waste Reduction Techniques Some of the waste reduction tools include zero defects, setup time reduction, and line balancing. The goal of zero defects is to ensure that products are fault free all the way, through continuous improvement of the manufacturing process (Karlsson and Ahlstrom 1996). Human beings almost invariably will make errors. When errors are made and are not caught then defective parts will appear at the end of the process. However, if the errors can be prevented before they happen then defective parts can be avoided. One of the tools that the zero defect principle uses is Poka Yoke. Poka-Yoke, which was developed by Shingo, is an autonomous defect control system that is put on a machine that inspects all parts to make sure that there are zero defects. The goal of Poka-Yoke is to observe the defective parts at the source, detect the cause of the defect, and to avoid moving the defective part to the next workstation (Feld, 2000). Single Minute Exchange of Die (SMED) is another technique of waste reduction. During 1950’s Ohno devised this system; and was able to reduce the die changing time from 1 day to three minutes (Womack, Jones and Ross, 1990). The basic idea of SMED is to reduce the setup time on a machine. There are two types of setups: internal and external. Internal setup activities are those that can be carried out only when the machine is stopped while external setup activities are those that can be done during machining. The idea is to move as many activities as possible from internal to external (Feld, 2000). Once all activities are identified than the next step is to try to simplify these activities (e. g. standardize setup, use fewer bolts). By reducing the setup time many benefits can be realized. First, die-changing specialists are not needed. Second, inventory can be reduced by producing small batches and more variety of product mix can be run. 31 Line balancing is considered a great weapon against waste, especially the wasted time of workers. The idea is to make every workstation produce the right volume of work that is sent to upstream workstations without any stoppage (Mid-America Manufacturing Technology Center Press Release, 2000). This will guarantee that each workstation is working in a synchronized manner, neither faster nor slower than other workstations. 2. 6. 7 Value Stream mapping Value Stream Mapping (VSM) is a technique that was originally developed by Toyota and then popularized by the book, Learning to See (The Lean Enterprise Institute, 1998), by Rother and Shook. VSM is used to find waste in the value stream of a product. Once waste is identified, then it is easier to make plan to eliminate it. The purpose of VSM is process improvement at the system level. Value stream maps show the process in a normal flow format. However, in addition to the information normally found on a process flow diagram, value stream maps show the information flow necessary to plan and meet the customer’s normal demands. Other process information includes cycle times, inventories, changeover times, staffing and modes of transportation etc. VSMs can be made for the entire business process or part of it depending upon necessity. The key benefit to value stream mapping is that it focuses on the entire value stream to find system wastes and try to eliminate the pitfall (Wilson, 2009, p. 147-153). Generally, the value stream maps are of three types. Present State Value Stream Map (PSVSM) tells about the current situation, Future State Value Stream Map (FSVSM) can be obtained by removing wastes (which can be eliminated in the short time like three to six months) from PSVSM and Ideal State Value Stream Mapping (ISVSM) is obtained by removing all the wastes from the stream. The VSM is designed to be a tool for highlighting activities. In lean terminology they are called kaizen activities, for waste reduction. Once the wastes are highlighted, the purpose of a VSM is to communicate the opportunities so they may be prioritized and acted upon. Hence, the prioritization and action must follow the VSM, otherwise it is just a waste like other wastes. 32 2. 7 Method Study Method study focuses on how a task can (should) be accomplished. Whether controlling a machine or making or assembling components, how a task is done makes a difference in performance, safety, and quality. Using knowledge from ergonomics and methods analysis, methods engineers are charged with ensuring quality and quantity standards are achieved efficiently and safely. Methods analysis and related techniques are useful in office environments as well as in the factory. Methods techniques are used to analyze the following (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 394-396): 1. Movement of individuals or material. Analysis for this is performed using flow diagrams and process charts with varying amounts of detail. 2. Activity of human and machine and crew activity. Analysis for this is performed using activity charts (also known as man-machine charts and crew charts). 3. Body movement (primarily arms and hands). Analysis for this is performed using micro-motion charts. 2. 8 Labor Standards and Work Measurements Effective operations management requires meaningful standards that can help a irm to determine the following (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 408-420) 1. Amount of labor contribution for any product (the labor cost). 2. Staffing needs (how many people it will take to meet required production). 3. Cost and time estimates prior to production (to assist in a variety of decisions, from cost estimates to make or buy decisions). 4. Crew size and work balance (who does what in a group activity or on an assembly line). 5. Expected production (so that both manager and worker know what constitutes a fair day’s work). 6. Basis of wage-incentive plan (what provides a reasonable incentive). 3 7. Efficiency of employees and supervision (a standard is necessary against which to determine efficiency). Properly set labor standards represent the amount of time that it should take an average employee to perform specific job activities under normal working conditions. The labor standards are set in by historical experience, time studies, predetermined time standards and work sampling. 2. 8. 1 Historical Experience Labor standards can be estimated based on historical experience i. e. how many labor hours were used to do a similar task when it was done last time. Based upon this experience the new time will be fixed for any new operation or works. Historical standards have the advantage of being relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain. They are usually available from employee time cards or production records. However, they are not objective, and we do not know their accuracy, whether they represent a reasonable or poor work pace, and whether unusual occurrences are included. Because their variables are unknown, their use is not recommended. Instead, time studies, predetermined time standards and work sampling are preferred (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 09). 2. 8. 2 Time Studies The classical stopwatch study, or time study, originally proposed by Federic W. Taylor in 1881, is still the most widely used time study method. The time study procedure involves the timing of a sample of worker’s performance and using it to set a standard. A trained and experienced person can establish a standard by following these eight steps (Heizer et al. , 20 00, p. 409-412). 1. Define the task to be studied (after methods analysis has been conducted). 34 2. Divide the task into precise elements (parts of a task that often takes no more than a few seconds). 3. Decide how many times to measure the task (the number of cycles of samples needed). 4. Record elemental times and rating of performance. 5. Compute the average observed cycle time. The average observed cycle time is the arithmetic mean of the times for each element measured, adjusted for unusual influence for each element: Average observed cycle time = 6. Determine performance rating and then compute the normal time for each element. Normal Time = (average observed cycle time) x (performance rating factor). 7. Add the normal times for each element to develop a total normal time for each task. . Compute the standard time. This adjustment to the total normal time provides allowances such as personal needs, unavoidable work delays and worker fatigue. Standard Time = Personal time allowances are often established in the range of 4% to 7% of total time, depending upon nearness to rest rooms, water fountains, and other facilities. Delay allowances are often set as a result of the actual st udies of the delay that occurs. Fatigue allowances are based on our growing knowledge of human energy expenditure under various physical and environmental conditions. The major two disadvantages of this method are; first they require a trained staff of analysts and secondly the labor standards cannot be set before tasks are actually performed. 35 2. 8. 3 Predetermined Time Standards Predetermined time standards divide manual work into small basic elements that already have established times (based on very large samples of workers). To estimate the time for a particular task, the time factors for each basic element of that task are added together. Developing a comprehensive system of predetermined time standards would be prohibitively expensive for any given firm. Consequently, a number of systems are commercially available. The most common predetermined time standard is methods time measurement (MTM), which is the product of the MTM association (Heizer et al. , 2000 p. 415-416). Predetermined time standards are an outgrowth of basic motions called therblings. The term therblig was coined by Frank Gilbreth. Therbligs include such activities as select, grasp, position, assemble, reach, hold, rest and inspect. These activities are stated in terms of time measurement units (TMUs), which are each equal to only 0. 00001 hour or 0. 0006 minutes. MTM values for various therbligs are specified with the help of detailed tables. Predetermined time standards have several advantages over direct time studies. First, they may be established in laboratory environment, where the procedure will not upset actual production activities. Second, because the standard can be set before a task is actually performed, it can be used for planning. Third, no performance ratings are necessary. Fourth, unions tend to accept this method as fair means of setting standards. Finally, predetermined time standards are particularly effective in firms that do substantial numbers of studies of similar tasks. . 8. 4 Work Sampling It is an estimate of the percentage of time that a worker spends on particular work by using random sampling of various workers. This can be conducted by the following procedures (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 416-418). 36 1. Take a preliminary sample to obtain an estimate of the parameter value (such as percent of time worker is busy). 2. Compute the sample size required. 3. Prepare a schedule for observing the worker at appropriate times. The concept of random numbers is used to provide for random observation. For example, let’s say we draw the following 5 random numbers from a table: 07, 12, 22, 25, and 49. These can then be used to create and observation schedules of 9:07 AM, 9:12, 9:22, 9:25, and 9:49 AM. 4. Observe and record worker activities. 5. Determine how workers spend their time (usually as percentage). To determine the number of observation required, management must decide upon the desired confidence level and accuracy. First, however, the analyst must select a preliminary value for the parameter under study. The choice is usually based on small sample of perhaps 50 observations. The following formula then gives the sample size for a desired confidence and accuracy. = Z2 ? p 1 ? p /h2 Where, n = required sample size z = standard normal deviate for the desired confidence level (z = 1 for 68% confidence, z = 2 for 95. 45% confidence, and z = 3 for 99. 73% confidence level) p = estimated value of sample proportion (of time worker is observed busy or idle) h = acceptable error level, in percent Work sampling offers several advantages over time study methods. First, because a sing le observer can observe several workers simultaneously, it is less expensive. Second, observers usually do not require much training and no timing devices are needed. Third, the study can be temporarily delayed at any time with little impact on the results. Fourth, because work sampling uses instantaneous observations over a long period, the worker has little chance of affecting the study outcome. Fifth, the procedure 37 is less intrusive and therefore less likely to generate objections. The disadvantages of work sampling are: 1. It does not divide work elements as completely as time studies. 2. It can yield biased or incorrect results if the observer does not follow random routes of travel and observation. 3. Being less intrusive, it tends to be less accurate; this is particularly true when cycle times are short. 2. 9 Layout Design Layout is one of the key decisions that determine the long-run efficiency of operations. Layout has numerous strategic implications because it establishes an organization’s competitive priorities in regard to the capacity, processes, flexibility and cost as well as quality of work life, customer contact and image. An effective layout can help an organization to achieve a strategy that supports differentiation, low cost, or response (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 336). The layout must consider how to achieve the following: 1. Higher utilization of space, equipment, and people. 2. Improved flow of information, material or people. 3. Improved employee morale and safer working conditions. 4. Improved customer/client interaction. 5. Flexibility (whatever the layout is now, it will need to change). Types of Layout Layout decision includes the best placement of machines (in production settings), offices and desks (in office settings) or service center (in setting such as hospitals or department stores). An effective layout facilitates the flow of materials, people, and information within and between areas. There are various kinds of layouts. Some of them are as follows (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 336-337). 38 1. Fixed Position layout – addresses the layout requirements of large, bulky projects such as ships and buildings (concerns the movement of material to the limited storage areas around the site). 2. Process Oriented Layout – deals with low volume, high variety production (also called ‘job shop’, or intermittent production). It can manage varied material flow for each product. 3. Office Layout – fixes workers positions, their equipment, and spaces (offices) to provide for movement of information (locate workers equiring frequent contact close to one another). 4. Retail Layout – allocates shelf space and responds to customer behavior (expose customer to high margin items). 5. Warehouse Layout – it addresses tradeoffs between space and material handlings (balance low cost storage with low cost material handling). 6. Product oriented layou ts – seeks the best personnel and machine utilization in repetitive or continuous production (equalize the task time at each workstation). 2. 10 Assembly Line Balancing Line balancing is usually undertaken to minimize imbalance between machines or personnel while meeting a required output from the line. The production rate is indicated as cycle time to produce one unit of the product, the optimum utilization of work force depends on the basis of output norms. The actual output of the individual may be different from the output norms. The time to operate the system, hence, keeps varying. It is, therefore, necessary to group certain activities to workstations to the tune of maximum of cycle time at each work station. The assembly line needs to balance so that there is minimum waiting of the line due to different operation time at each workstation. The sequencing is therefore, not only the allocation of men and machines to operating activities, but also the optimal utilization of facilities by the proper balancing of the assembly line (Sharma, 2009, p. 179). 39 The process of assembly line balancing involves three steps (Heizer et al. , 2000, p. 356358): 1. Take the units required (demand or production rate) per day and divide it into the productive time available per day (in minutes or seconds). This operation gives us what is called the cycle time. Namely, the maximum time that the product is available at each workstation if the production rate is to be achieved. Cycle time = production time available per day / units required per day 2. Calculate the theoretical minimum number of workstations. This is the total task duration time (the time it takes to make the product) divided by the cycle time. Fractions are rounded to the next higher whole number. MinimumNumberofWorkstations = ? Where n is the number of assembly tasks. 3. Balance the line by assigning specific assembly tasks to each workstation. An efficient balance is one that will complete the required assembly, follow the specified sequence, and keep the idle time at each work stations to a minimum. TimeforTaski / Cycle Time 2. 10. Takt Time Takt is German word for a pace or beat, often linked to conductor’s baton. Takt time is a reference number that is used to help match the rate of production in a pacemaker process to the rate of sales. This can be formulated as below (Rother and Harris, 2008, p. 13). Takt Time = Takt time can be defined as the rate at which customers need prod ucts i. e. the products should be produced at least equal to takt time to meet the customer demand. Takt time works better when customer demand is steady and clearly known; but if the customer demand varies on the daily basis then it is difficult to calculate the takt time as well as 40 alance the production facility according to varying takt time. So if the orders are varying every day the information of actual shipments (not orders) should be gathered for last few months or years and takt time for the particular product should be calculated. In this way, the production can be balanced to meet changing customer demand. 2. 10. 2 Cycle Time Cycle time is defined as how frequently a finished product comes out of our production facility (Rother et al. , 2008, p. 15). Cycle time includes all types of delays occurred while completing a job. So cycle time can be calculated by the following formula. Total Cycle Time = processing time + set up time + waiting time + moving time + inspection time + rework time + other delays to complete the job To meet customer demand or monitor productivity the cycle time and takt time should be balanced in parallel. The higher cycle time than takt time may result the late delivery and customer dissatisfaction whereas shorter cycle time than takt time may cause the excess inventory or excess use of resource. 2. 11 Summary This chapter briefly describes lean manufacturing tools and techniques for waste reduction and efficiency enhancement. Literature defines lean manufacturing, describes some lean tools (most relevant to this research), work standardization and assembly line balancing tools. The lean tools selected consist of cellular manufacturing, single piece flow, just in time (pull production), work standardization methods, continuous improvement process, and some other waste reduction tools. The chapter ends with the work standardization process by time studies, layout design and assembly line balancing methods. 1 Lean is a powerful tool, when adopted it can create superior financial and operational results. But in many cases, the confusion about how to start lean, from where to begin is also a problem for new practitioners. In some cases, the company tries to implement lean but it does not give effective results and stops in-between. All these are due to lack of clarity before implementing lean and lack of top management commitment. So to avoid the chances of failure one has to prepare in advance for the outcomes of the lean and should involve all employees on improvement programs. Lean is not just about the implementation of tools but also the development of its employees to adopt these tools. So, regular training and upgrading of employee skill is the most important factor for the success of lean. 42 3 GARMENT MANUFACTURIGN PROCESS 3. 1 Industry Background The research is conducted in garment industry whose major products are Men’s formal shirt in various order size. The factory consists of central cutting d

Major General Benedict Arnold in the American Revolution

Major General Benedict Arnold in the American Revolution Benedict Arnold V was born January 14, 1741, to successful businessman Benedict Arnold III and his wife Hannah. Raised in Norwich, CT, Arnold was one of six children though only two, he and his sister Hannah, survived to adulthood. The loss of the other children led Arnolds father to alcoholism and prevented him from teaching his son the family business. First educated at a private school in Canterbury, Arnold was able to secure an apprenticeship with his cousins who operated mercantile and apothecary businesses in New Haven. In 1755, with the French Indian War raging he attempted to enlist in the militia but was stopped by his mother. Successful two years later, his company departed to relieve Fort William Henry but returned home before seeing any fighting. With the death of his mother in 1759, Arnold increasingly had to support his family due to his fathers declining condition. Three years later, his cousins loaned him the money to open an apothecary and bookstore. A skilled merchant, Arnold was able to raise the money to buy three ships in partnership with Adam Babcock. These traded profitably until the imposition of the Sugar and Stamp Acts. Pre-American Revolution Opposed to these new royal taxes, Arnold soon joined the Sons of Liberty and effectively became a smuggler as he operated outside of the new laws. During this period he also faced financial ruin as debts began to accumulate. In 1767, Arnold married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of the sheriff of New Haven. The union would produce three sons before her death in June 1775. As tensions with London increased, Arnold increasingly became interested in military matters and was elected a captain in the Connecticut militia in March 1775. With the beginning of the American Revolution the following month, he marched north to take part in the siege of Boston. Fort Ticonderoga Arriving outside Boston, he soon offered a plan to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety for a raid on Fort Ticonderoga in northern New York. Supporting Arnolds plan, the committee issued him a commission as a colonel and dispatched him north. Reaching the vicinity of the fort, Arnold encountered other colonial forces under Colonel Ethan Allen. Though the two men initially clashed, they resolved their disagreements and captured the fort on May 10. Moving north, Arnold conducted a raid against Fort Saint-Jean on the Richelieu River. With the arrival of new troops, Arnold fought with the commander and returned south. Invasion of Canada Without a command, Arnold became one of several individuals who lobbied for an invasion of Canada. The Second Continental Congress finally authorized such an operation, but Arnold was passed over for command. Returning to the siege lines in Boston, he convinced General George Washington to send a second expedition north via the wilderness of Maines Kennebec River. Receiving permission for this scheme and a commission as a colonel in the Continental Army, he embarked in September 1775 with around 1,100 men. Short on food, hampered by poor maps, and facing degrading weather, Arnold lost over half his force en route. Reaching Quebec, he was soon joined by the other American force led by Major General Richard Montgomery. Uniting, they launched a failed attempt to capture the city on December 30/31 in which he was wounded in the leg and Montgomery killed. Though defeated at the Battle of Quebec, Arnold was promoted to brigadier general and maintained a loose siege of the city. After overseeing American forces at Montreal, Arnold commanded the retreat south in 1776 following the arrival of British reinforcements. Troubles in the Army Constructing a scratch fleet on Lake Champlain, Arnold won a critical strategic victory at Valcour Island in October which delayed the British advance against Fort Ticonderoga and the Hudson Valley until 1777. His overall performance earned Arnold friends in Congress and he developed a relationship with Washington. Conversely, during his time in the north, Arnold alienated many in the army through courts-martial and other inquiries. In the course of one of these, Colonel Moses Hazen charged him with stealing military supplies. Though the court ordered his arrest, it was blocked by Major General Horatio Gates. With the British occupation of Newport, RI, Arnold was sent to Rhode Island by Washington to organize new defenses. In February 1777, Arnold learned that he had been passed over for promotion to major general. Angered by what he perceived to be politically motivated promotions, he offered his resignation to Washington which was refused. Traveling south to Philadelphia to argue his case, he aided in fighting a British force at Ridgefield, CT. For this, he received his promotion though his seniority was not restored. Angered, he again prepared to offer his resignation but did not follow through upon hearing that Fort Ticonderoga had fallen. Racing north to Fort Edward, he joined Major General Philip Schuylers northern army. Battles of Saratoga Arriving, Schuyler soon dispatched him with 900 men to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix. This was quickly accomplished through a use of ruse and deception and he returned to find that Gates was now in command. As Major General John Burgoynes army marched south, Arnold advocated aggressive action but was blocked by the cautious Gates. Finally receiving permission to attack, Arnold won a fight at Freemans Farm on September 19. Excluded from Gates report of the battle, the two men clashed and Arnold was relieved of his command. Ignoring this fact, he raced to the fighting at Bemis Heights on October 7 and guided American troops to victory. Philadelphia In the fighting at Saratoga, Arnold was again wounded in the leg he had injured at Quebec. Refusing to allow it to be amputated, he had it crudely set leaving it two inches shorter than his other leg. In recognition of his bravery at Saratoga, Congress finally restored his command seniority. Recovering, he joined Washingtons army at Valley Forge in March 1778 to much acclaim. That June, following the British evacuation, Washington appointed Arnold to serve as military commander of Philadelphia. In this position, Arnold quickly began making questionable business deals to rebuild his shattered finances. These angered many in the city who began collecting evidence against him. In response, Arnold demanded a court-martial to clear his name. Living extravagantly, he soon began courting Peggy Shippen, the daughter of a prominent Loyalist judge, who had previously attracted the eye of Major John Andre during the British occupation. The two were married in April 1779. The Road to Betrayal Angered by a perceived lack of respect and encouraged by Peggy who retained lines of communication with the British, Arnold began reaching out to the enemy in May 1779. This offer reached Andrà © who consulted with General Sir Henry Clinton in New York. While Arnold and Clinton negotiated compensation, the American began providing a variety of intelligence. In January 1780, Arnold was largely cleared of the charges levied against him earlier, though in April a Congressional inquiry found irregularities pertaining to his finances during the Quebec campaign. Resigning his command at Philadelphia, Arnold successfully lobbied for command of West Point on the Hudson River. Working through Andrà ©, he came to an agreement in August to surrender the post to the British. Meeting on September 21, Arnold and Andrà © sealed the deal. Departing the meeting, Andrà © was captured two days later as he returned to New York City. Learning of this on September 24, Arnold was forced to flee to HMS Vulture in the Hudson River as the plot was exposed. Remaining calm, Washington investigated the scope of betrayal and offered to exchange Andrà © for Arnold. This was refused and Andrà © was hung as a spy on October 2. Later Life Receiving a commission as a brigadier general in the British Army, Arnold campaigned against American forces in Virginia later that year and in 1781. In his last major action of the war, he won the Battle of Groton Heights in Connecticut in September 1781. Effectively viewed as a traitor by both sides, he did not receive another command when the war ended despite lengthy efforts. Returning to life as a merchant he lived in Britain and Canada before his death in London on June 14, 1801.